DOI: 10.24308/iass-2014-044

CyprusUniversity of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus

evripides.zantides@cut.ac.cy

CyprusUniversity of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus

anna.zapiti@gmail.com

Abstract

Political advertising as a communication process aims in attracting the viewers’ attention towards what a candidate or a party has to say with the ‘intention of influencing their political attitudes, beliefs and/or behaviors’ (Kaid, 2004). In electoral photography the candidate does not only attempt to establish a program with the voters but also a ‘personal link’ with them, articulated through ‘a style of life of which he is at once the product, the example and the bait’, heroized through the iconography of his appearance in familiar social settings, gestures and other predetermined set ups (Barthes, 1993). As Capistran (2013) argued, the posed, constructed and photographic image of the candidate in the studio or another controlled environment indicates the power of control by the individual represented. Dumitrescu (2010) identified two communication roles that political posters play; the first is to provide “factual” information about the candidates whilst the second is to present “nonverbal” information through pictures of the candidate, signaling behavioral intent. Political posters can also significantly alter their motivational and persuasive power simply by using images that elicit emotions such as fear or enthusiasm (Brader, 2005). Different feelings and preferences can be elicited through the image of the candidate alone.

The purpose of this study is three-fold: to examine which non-verbal attributes/connotative mechanisms are used by candidates in the construction of their political image; to investigate the linguistic meaning of head­lines–isolated and in respect of the candidate’s image; and to explore the semiotic characteristics of the typography used in the main headlines. One hundred and forty seven (n=147) political posters were taken for analysis. These posters came from presidential and parliamentary elections from the 1960s until 2013 in Cyprus. All posters include an image of the candidate. The posters were drawn from the Press and Information Office (PIO) in Cyprus, the archives of different newspapers and magazines and from various advertising agencies that have dealt with these posters. The methodology of content analysis was used and the coding frame developed was based on previous published work.

The data revealed that there are changes in the connotation procedures on the photographic messages of the political candidates as well as in the linguistic meaning and the typography of the headlines used. The study shows that political images, linguistic messages and typography of headlines vary over a period of time and suggest that there are associations of these changes with socio-historical landmarks and events.

1. Introduction

Political posters have a long contribution in the history of political campaigns. Seidman (2008) remarks that “Many memorable election campaigns have helped national parties and their candidates to secure or maintain power” whilst posters, billboards and banners were the primary media of political communication in the nineteenth century and continue to be in importance in many countries today. Political advertising as a communication process aims in attracting the viewers’ attention towards what a candidate or a party has to say with the “intention of influencing their political attitudes, beliefs and/or behaviours” (Kaid 2004). With the appearance of television and the development of internet and social networking today, posters have a declining usage, however the political pose and electoral approach for mass persuasion through visual communication re-adapts its presence and techniques regardless of the medium. Seidman (2008) defines six key elements that affect the design, content, and usage of posters produced in the political realm, being Technology, Social Attitudes, Education, Legislation, Advertising & Political Marketing and Art & Graphic Design. The current study concentrates on Art & Graphic Design, particularly from the perspective of the candidate’s photographic image, the linguistic meaning of the main headline and the typography used in Cypriot elections since sate independence in 1960.

The pictorial/electoral imagery printing, other than painting or just text, became possible with the invention of lithography in 1796 by the German Alois Senefeinder. With this printing evolution, not just political, but pictorial posters in general were mass-produced and distributed in much of the Western world.

“In electoral photography the nominee does not only attempt to establish a program with the voters but also a ‘personal link’ with them, articulated through ‘a style of life of which he is at once the product, the example and the bait’, heroized through the iconography of his appearance in familiar social settings, gestures and other predetermined set ups” (Barthes 1993). Interestingly we can observe how John Kennedy in the 1960s was evidently careful about his public photographs, paying particular attention in the lighting, his gaze, the background colours and his pose.

2. Investigating the literature review

The political poster is one of the most pervasive or even persistent expressions of political behaviour. For this reason, Dumitrescu (2010) stated that political posters are an important part of the visual battleground of election campaigns around the world and parties and candidates spend significant proportions of their campaigns communication finances on posters. She also identified two communication roles the poster content plays. The first is to provide “factual” information about the candidates. The second is to provide “nonverbal” information through pictures of the candidate, signalling behavioural intent.

Political posters may promote different messages but they may also produce different emotions. In his study, Brader (2005) found that posters can significantly alter their motivational and persuasive power simply by using images that elicit emotions such as fear or enthusiasm. Specifically, when messages include enthusiasm eliciting images, campaign ads reinforce motivation and loyalty. Therefore, voters exposed to such messages show greater interest in the campaign, are more willing to vote and rely more on pre-existing references to choose a candidate. On the contrary, campaign ads including messages and fear-eliciting images cause a shift in decision-making criteria and changes in political choice. These findings underline the central role of emotions to whether and how a political campaign ad works.

Different feelings and preferences can also be elicited through the image of the candidate alone. Capistran (2013) argued that the posed, constructed and photographic image of the candidate in the studio or another controlled environment indicates the power of control by the individual represented. He conducted a semiotic analysis of the political posters from the pre-campaign period of the Mexican election in 2012 and found that many published images of candidate are of a testimonial type. These photos reinforce an informative rhetoric which is based on the concept of information. Candidates appeared controlled, smiling, safe, with a look of kindness and self-confident gestures which are “favorable” postures. The number of strictly posed photos was reduced while there were many images of candidates making speeches.

In a study investigating 20 years of election in Western Europe, Adams et al. (2006) found that while mainstream parties displayed consistent tendencies to respond to public opinion shifts, there is no evidence that niche parties responded to shifts in public opinion. Additionally, they found that in situations where niche parties moderated their policy positions they were systematically punished at the polls. Such findings suggest the need to analyse the posters of candidates from different political parties in search of the different messages and policy opinion that they express.

3. A brief historic and political background of Cyprus[1]

Political advertisements can be an expression of the political and national history of a country, reflecting significant milestones in a nation’s history. This can be the case with a country like Cyprus which has a long history of wars and national struggles for liberation, peace and democracy. Cyprus was under the British rule until the 1960 when, after a four-year liberation struggle, the island became independent and was proclaimed a Republic. When in 1963 the President of the Republic proposed some amendments to facilitate the functioning of the state, the Turkish Cypriot community responded with rebellion, the Turkish Cypriot Ministers withdrew from the Council of Ministers and the Turkish Cypriot public servants ceased attending their offices. In 1974, a coup was staged in Cyprus by the military junta, then in power in Greece, for the overthrow of the then President of Cyprus, Archbishop Makarios. Turkey used this pretext to launch an invasion in Cyprus in which the Turkish troops eventually occupied 37% of the island's territory. The Turkish invasion, signified a major change in people’s lives since almost 40% of the population became refugees while others were enclaved and then forced to leave through the years.

The elections of 1960 were the first elections in the newly independent country. The elections of 1965 were postponed but the elections of 1973 and 1977 could reflect and reveal how the Turkish invasion changed the political advertising messages. In the following years, Cypriots attempted to recover economically and emotionally. Therefore in following elections of the 1980s and 1990s, politicians addressed the struggling people of Cyprus for a vote. Additionally, two other major events might have also played a role in the determination of the photographic image, the text and the final product in general of a political poster in the proceeding elections. The first is the acceptance of Cyprus in the European Union. Specifically, on 1 May 2004 Cyprus joined the European Union, together with nine other countries. The EU membership was accompanied by both privileges and obligations that set the formation of a newly acquired national identity; that is the European one. The second major event took place in March 2008, a wall that for decades had stood at the boundary between the Republic of Cyprus and the UN buffer zone was demolished. The wall had cut across Ledra Street in the heart of Nicosia and was seen as a strong symbol of the island's 32-year division. On April the 3rd 2008, Ledra Street was reopened in the presence of Greek and Turkish Cypriot officials. Since April 2008, a number of crossing points have opened up between the north and the south side of Cyprus bringing the two former communities closer according to some people or further apart, based on others.

Political campaigns through mass media are created for different elections like when presidential or parliamentary may take place in a country. For the present research, political posters/advertisements from both parliamentary and presidential elections were selected.

4. The current study and research purposes

The current study deals with the analysis of political posters in Cyprus for the past 50 years, since state independence in 1960. The analysis includes not only the photographic image of the candidate but also the general set-up and the feelings that are promoted through the image. The importance of the study of political posters rests on the assumption that they could reveal both the candidate’s strategy and the candidate’s attempt to make some difference at the polls, in respect of their historic and social context. Having in mind that the ideological messages of a poster are largely hidden and implicit in nature, Barthes (1977) argued that the work of semiotics is important because it can reveal this masked ideological components in the produced collection of signs. For this revelation, he demonstrates the particular areas of focus: a) the denotative/connotative aspects of the image, b) the connotative aspect of the linguistic text in their relationship to their concomitant image, c) the way in which signs have been coded with ideological content and d) the way in which viewers/receivers, because of their cultural knowledge, likely to read or interpret the message. Kress and van Leeuwen (2006) also stated that since images are socially constructed, “the communication requires that participants make their message maximally understandable in a particular context, therefore they choose forms of expression which they believe to be maximally transparent to other participants”. In other words, political posters communicate a message through both the image and text, but the interpretation is always affected by the cultural, social and political context and current situation of the country. Therefore, in the present research, political posters from 1960 until 2013 were used and both image and text were analysed in order to examine how ideologies are constructed in different contexts.

The purpose of this study is: a) to examine which non-verbal attributes and connotative mechanisms are used by candidates in the construction of their political image; b) to investigate the linguistic meaning of headlines in political advertisements; and c) to explore the semiotic characteristics of the typography used for the main headline texts.

5. Methodology

One hundred and forty seven (147) political posters, web and print advertisements were taken for analysis. These posters came from presidential and parliamentary elections from the 1960s until today. All posters include an image of the candidate. The posters were drawn from the Press and Information Office (PIO) in Cyprus, the archives of different local newspapers, local magazines and from various advertising agencies that dealt with political campaigns. There was a reduced amount of posters and advertisements from the decades of 1960 and 1970 due to the fact that very few newspapers and printing companies were operated at the time, as well as, for the reason that Makarios was simultaneously both, president of the republic and Archbishop of Cyprus. His double role as a religious and political figure made him powerful and popular among people with limited opposition to worry about. As a presidential candidate he did not really have the need for political campaigns to convince his voters (usually the majority of the population) during these first decades.

In terms of the corpus, it is estimated that most of the available material was collected in order to have a comparable number of posters and advertisements from each category to compare. From the rest of the decades, the material was randomly selected.

The posters were analysed using on a coding frame that was developed based on previous published work. The coding frame included variables concerning three major semiotic resources: the analysis of the photographic image, the analysis of the linguistic messages and the analysis of the Typography used for the main headline text. The variables concerning the photographic image of the candidate and the general set-up of the poster were the following: (1) eye contact, (2) point of view (low-angle, eye-level, high-angle), (3) point of view (face-to-face, profile), (4) size of photo, (5) close-up photo, (6) pose impression, (7) facial expression, (8) objects, (9) clothes, (10) feelings and (11) set-up. The variables for the linguistic analysis of the text were the following: (1) emphasis, (2) discourse, (3) image of the candidate, and in terms of typography, (4) case, (5) slope, (6) shape, (7) weight/value, (8) orientation, (9) location, (10) texture and (11) scale.

Each decade from the 1960s until today is characterised by a major historical event as described in the brief historic and political background of Cyprus. Therefore, the political posters were divided in different periods based on the historical milestones on each decade. The periods were the following: (1) 1960–1973 which is the period before the Turkish invasion, (2) 1974 until 2003 which is the period after the war and (3) from 2004 until the latest elections in 2013 which is the period from the inclusion of Cyprus in the European Union and onwards.

6. Results

Analysis of the image.

A crosstabulation comparing all the variables of the coding frame across different decades was performed. As for the image, significant differences were found concerning eye contact, point of view (face-to-face, profile), pose impression, facial expression and objects.

In detail, there were significant differences across time periods concerning eye contact of the candidates [x²(2)=14.33, p=0.001]. Specifically, in the majority of political posters in the period from 1960–1973, the candidates do not have eye contact (88.9%) while in the periods from 1974–2003 and from 2004 onwards the majority of candidates have (72.5% and 71.3% respectively).

There were also significant differences across time periods concerning point of view (face-to-face, profile) [x²(4)=31.3, p=0.00]. In detail, in the majority of political posters in the period between 1960–1973, the candidates have a profile photo (66.7%) while in the periods from 1974–2003 and from 2004 onwards, most pictures of candidates are taken from the front (90.2% and 94.3% respectively).

The analysis also indicated significant differences across time periods concerning the overall pose impression [x²(4)=28.56, p=0.00]. Specifically, in the majority of political posters in the period between 1960 and 1973, the candidate is presented mostly as an older and experienced man (66.7%) and in the rest of the cases as a controlled, self-confident, smiling man (33.3%). There are no candidates presented as young and good looking. On the other hand, in the periods from 1974–2003 and from 2004 onwards, the majority of the candidates are presented as controlled, self-confident, smiling men (92.2% and 72.4% respectively). In the rest of the posters, they are presented as older and experienced or as young and good looking.

In addition, there were significant differences across time periods concerning facial expression of the candidates [x²(8)=64.68, p=0.00]. In detail, in the majority of political posters in the period from 1960–1973, the majority of candidates have a calm facial expression (66.7%) and in the rest of the cases they are smiling (33.3%). There are no candidates with positive, neutral or sad facial expression. On the other hand, in the periods from 1974–2003 and from 2004 onwards, the majority of the candidates are presented either with a smile or with positive facial expression or less frequently with a neutral expression. In very few instances they are presented as calm or sad.

The objects present in the posters were also found to differ across time periods [x²(6)=40.09, p=0.00]. In particular, in the majority of political posters in the period from 1960–1973, there are no other objects (66.7%). However, in the case where the candidate is the archbishop of Cyprus, he is presented sometimes holding his sceptre (33.3%). Similarly, in the periods from 1974–2003 and from 2004 onwards, the majority of the candidates are presented with no other objects in the picture. Interestingly, only after 2004, the flag of Cyprus and the European Union become present in the posters.

Analysis of text.

Significant differences were found concerning emphasis, discourse, image of the candidate, case, shape, location and scale. In detail, there are significant differences across time periods concerning emphasis of the linguistic message [x²(2)=30.29, p=0.00]. Specifically, all the political posters in the period from 1960–1973 emphasize on ideology. In the period from 1974–2003 the majority of the posters emphasize on ideology (82.4%) and the rest on party affiliation (17.6%). On the contrary, in the period after 2004 until today, the majority of posters emphasize on party affiliation (59.8%) and the rest on ideology (40.2%).

There were also significant differences across time periods concerning discourse on the poster [x²(12)=23.99, p=0.02]. Specifically, in all the political posters in the period from 1960–1973, the discourse emphasizes on ideology. In the period from 1974–2003 the discourse in the majority of the posters emphasizes on ideology (45.1%) and the rest on national security and the war of 1974 (21.6%) and the credibility of the candidate (17.6%). Similarly, in the period after 2004 until today, the discourse in the majority of posters emphasize on ideology (59.8%) and less on national security and the war of 1974 (9.2%) and the credibility of the candidate (12.6%).

The image of the candidate through the text was also found to differ [x²(4)=66.97, p=0.00]. In detail, all the political posters in the period from 1960–1973 represent a strong leader. In the period from 1974–2003, many of the posters present either a knowledgeable (39.2%) or a strong leader (35.3%). On the contrary, in the period after 2004 until today, the majority of posters represent an inspiring leader (74.7%).

Significant differences across time periods were found concerning the headline letterforms in the poster [x²(2)=7.83, p=0.02]. Specifically, in the majority of political posters in the period from 1960–1973, the text is in capital letters (66.7%). On the contrary, in the periods from 1974–2003 and from 2004 onwards, the text in most posters is in small letters. The shape of the text present in the poster was also found to differ [x²(6)=45.19, p=0.00]. Particularly, in the majority of political posters in the period from 1960–1973, the shape of the text is serif (66.7%). In the rest of the posters, the sans-serif shape is used and there is no use of rounded shape of text or script. On the contrary, in the periods from 1974–2003 and from 2004 onwards, the text in most posters is sans-serif shape. There are also posters using script shaped or rounded shaped text.

There were also significant differences across time periods concerning the placement of the text present in the poster [x²(12)=21.55, p=0.045]. Specifically, in all the political posters of the period from 1960–1973, the text is near the candidate. On the contrary, in the majority of the posters of in the periods from 1974–2003 and from 2004 onwards, the text is again near the candidate but there are also instances where the text is either in the top or the bottom of the poster or somewhere away from the candidate.

Finally, the emphasis on the text and the picture [x²(4)=21.70, p=0.00] was found to differ across decades. It is interesting that only in the period from 1974 until 2003, there is more emphasis on the text than the picture of the candidate in the majority of the posters.

7. Discussion

The current study had three levels of analysis and research. First, to examine which non-verbal attributes/connotative mechanisms are used by candidates in the construction of their political photographic image, second to investigate the linguistic aspects of headlines in political advertisements and third to examine which semiotic dimensions characterise the typography of the main headline texts.

For the first level of analysis, the results indicated that after the Turkish invasion in 1974, candidates have eye contact with the viewers as well as pose with frontal portraits (point of view). This representation of where do the eyes look is often associated with the idea of demand (Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2006). After the 1974 war and the entry of Cyprus in the European Union in 2004, the candidates are looking at their voters attempting/demanding to develop a relationship of engagement, in equal ‘visual terms’ with their viewers/voters. In the period from 1960–1973, the candidates are profile photographed, look older and experienced with calm facial expressions, offering their profiles to be ‘looked-at’, voters are not being part of their gaze, the candidates are there to be admired. During these first decades, Makarios as archbishop of Cyprus was obliged to have a holy and religious photographic image (usually with a sceptre, an object to remind his sacred role) which inevitably was reflected and used for defining a divine/holy presidential portrayal as well. On the other hand, in the periods from 1974–2003 and from 2004 onwards, the majority of the candidates are presented either with a smile or with positive facial expression. It is evident that the Turkish invasion on the island in 1974 and the 2004 European Union entry were critical points changing the ways that politicians constructed their image on electoral campaigns. In general, and after 1974, the photographic image of candidates though its representation, becomes friendlier, approachable and vernacular, obviously on an attempt to gain the citizens’ trust – and consequently their votes – via ‘equalising’ their photographic profile and visually pose at the same level with them. Maybe this approach attempts to give the impression that candidates are part of the voters, and being like them, they would understand and share similar problems and needs. Additionally, after 2004, the European flag is also evident on most of the campaigns, reminding the voters of the candidates’ ‘commitment’ to develop a new European identity for the people of Cyprus, a change under a European perspective.

For the second level of analysis, thus in respect of the linguistic message, it is observed that the period from 1960–1973 emphasizes on ideology. In the period from 1974–2003 the majority of the posters emphasize on ideology and the rest on party affiliation whilst interestingly, in the period after 2004 until today, the majority emphasize on party affiliation and the rest on ideology. Party affiliation is a very popular approach of attracting voters in Cyprus and it is interesting to observe that this emphasis was put aside after the 1974 war, a period that ideology seems to have been more important for the re-construction of a divided nation.

In terms of discourse, all the political posters in the period from 1960–1973 emphasize on ideology. In the period from 1974–2003 the discourse in the majority of the posters emphasizes mainly on ideology, then on national security, the war of 1974 and the credibility of the candidate. In the period after 2004 until today, still the discourse in the majority of posters emphasize on ideology, however less on national security, the war of 1974 and the credibility of the candidate. This might be due to the fact that even until now, on-going political negotiations are failing to provide any solution for the unification of the island and candidates seem to give up in using these arguments in their campaigns, especially with Cyprus being theoretically under the official security of the European Union.

Additionally, for the image of the candidate through the text, all the posters in the period from 1960–1973 were found to represent a strong leader, in the period from 1974–2003 many of the posters describe either a knowledgeable or a strong leader whilst in the period after 2004 until today, the majority of posters designate an inspiring leader. The findings could be interpreted in respect of the historical context of Cyprus. The state independence was established in 1960 where a leader had to be strong to provide the foundations and start the nation, whilst after the war invasion in 1974 the candidates are knowledgeable and strong leaders, thus people who would have the understanding, awareness and strength to find a solution for the divided nation. After Cyprus joined the European Union, the portrayal of inspiring leaders in political advertisements is usually what is related and expected with the European philosophy, which are people who could foresee opportunities and perspectives that open under the European umbrella.

In the final level of analysis it is interesting to see how typography compares with the linguistic meaning, the image and the historic context of the advertisements. In particular, before 1974 the writing/letterforms appear to be imposing, loud and aggressive whereas after the war, typography calms down and becomes more friendly and personal. This seems to match and support the photographic message as well as the linguistic text, where campaigns become ‘friendlier’ and ‘polite’ after the invasion of 1974 a conclusion that reflects very well what Williamson (2002) describes that, “[w]e can only understand what advertisements mean by finding out how they mean, and analyzing the way in which they work”

Specific tables and images can be provided upon request to the first author.

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